二、高阶 SQL(Advanced SQL)
回顾
在 「Relational Model」 下构建查询语句的方式分为两种:Procedural 和 Non-Procedural。第一节课中已经介绍了 Relational Algebra,它属于 Procedural 类型,而本节将介绍的 SQL 属于 Non-Procedural 类型。使用 SQL 构建查询时,用户只需要指定它们想要的数据,而不需要关心数据获取的方式,DBMS 负责理解用户的查询语义,选择最优的方式构建查询计划。
SQL 历史
- SEQUAL from IBM’s System R prototype
- Structured English Query Language
- Adopted by Oracle in the 1970s
- IBM releases DB2 in 1983
- ANSI Standard in 1986. ISO in 1987
- Structued Query Language
当前 SQL 的标准是 SQL 2016,而目前大部分 DBMSs 至少支持 「SQL-92」 标准
- Structued Query Language
SQL 主要特性介绍
概要
本节使用的示例数据库如下所示:
student(sid, name, login, age, gpa)
sid | name | login | age | gpa |
---|---|---|---|---|
53666 | Kanye | kayne@cs | 39 | 4.0 |
53668 | Bieber | jbieber@cs | 22 | 3.9 |
enrolled(sid, cid, grade)
course(cid, name)
聚合(Aggregates)
Aggregates 通常返回一个值,它们包括:
- AVG(col)
- MIN(col)
- MAX(col)
- SUM(col)
- COUNT(col)
举例:1
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8SELECT COUNT(login) AS cnt
FROM student WHERE login LIKE '%@cs';
SELECT COUNT(*) AS cnt
FROM student WHERE login LIKE '%@cs';
SELECT COUNT(1) AS cnt
FROM student WHERE login LIKE '%@cs';
1 | SELECT AVG(gpa), COUNT(sid) |
1 | SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT login) |
aggregate 与其它通常的查询列不可以混用,比如:
1 | SELECT AVG(s.gpa), e.cid |
注意:
不同 DBMSs 的输出结果不一样,严格模式下,DBMS 应该抛错。
分组(Group by)
group by 就是把记录按某种方式分成多组,对每组记录分别做 aggregates 操作,如求每门课所有学生的 GPA 平均值:
1 | SELECT AVG(s.gpa), e.cid |
所有非 aggregates 操作的字段,都必须出现在 group by 语句,如下面示例中的 e.cid 和 s.name:1
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4SELECT AVG(s.gpa), e.cid, s.name
FROM enrolled AS e, student AS s
WHERE e.sid = s.sid
GROUP BY e.cid, s.name;
再过滤(Having)
基于 aggregation 结果的过滤条件不能写在 WHERE 中,而应放在 HAVING 中,如:1
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5SELECT AVG(s.gpa) AS avg_gpa, e.cid
FROM enrolled AS e, student AS s
WHERE e.sid = s.sid
GROUP BY e.cid
HAVING avg_gpa > 3.9;
重定向输出(Output Redirection)
将查询结果储存到另一张表上:
- 该表必须是已经存在的表
- 该表的列数,以及每列的数据类型必须相同
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3CREATE TABLE CourseIds (
SELECT DISTINCT cid FROM enrolled
);
输出控制(Output Control)
排序(Order By)
语法:ORDER BY <column*> [ASC|DESC]
1 | SELECT sid, grade FROM enrolled |
按多个字段分别排序:
1 | SELECT sid FROM enrolled |
限制(Limit)
语法:LIMIT <count> [offset]
1 | SELECT sid, name FROM student |
嵌套查询(Nested Queries)
nested queries 包含 「inner queries」 和 「outer queries」,前者可以出现在 query 的任何位置,且 inner queries 可以引用 outer queries 中的表信息。
例 1:获取所有参与 ‘15-445’ 这门课所有学生的姓名:
1 | SELECT name FROM student |
语法中支持的谓词包括:
- ALL: 所有 inner queries 返回的记录都必须满足条件
- ANY:任意 inner queries 返回的记录满足条件即可
- IN:与 ANY 等价
- EXISTS:inner queries 返回的表不为空例 2:找到至少参与一门课程的所有学生中,id 最大的
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5SELECT name FROM student
WHERE sid ANY (
SELECT sid FROM enrolled
WHERE cid = '15-445'
)例 3:找到所有没有学生参与的课程1
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15SELECT sid, name FROM student
WHERE sid >= ALL (
SELECT sid FROM enrolled
);
SELECT sid, name FROM student
WHERE sid IN (
SELECT MAX(sid) FROM enrolled
);
SELECT sid, name FROM student
WHERE sid IN (
SELECT sid FROM enrolled
ORDER BY sid DESC LIMIT 1
);nested queries 比较难被优化(具体原因暂不知道)1
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5SELECT * FROM course
WHERE NOT EXISTS (
SELECT * FROM enrolled
WHERE course.cid = enrolled.cid
);
通用表达式(Common Table Expressions)
在一些复杂查询中,创建一些中间表能够使得这些查询逻辑更加清晰:1
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14WITH cteName AS (
SELECT 1
)
SELECT * FROM cteName
WITH cteName (col1, col2) AS (
SELECT 1, 2
)
SELECT col1 + col2 FROM cteName
WITH
cteName1(col) AS (SELECT 1),
cteName2(col) AS (SELECT 2)
SELECT C1.col + C2.col FROM cteName1 AS C1, cteName2 AS C2;
例 1:找到所有参与课程的学生中 id 最大的1
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5WITH cteSource(maxId) AS (
SELECT MAX(sid) FROM enrolled
)
SELECT name FROM student, cteSource
WHERE student.sid = cteSource.maxId
例 2:打印 1-101
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7WITH RECURSIVE cteSource (counter) AS (
(SELECT 1)
UNION ALL
(SELECT counter + 1 FROM cteSource
WHERE counter < 10)
)
SELECT * FROM cteSource;
字符串操作(String Operations)
DBMS | String Case | String Quotes |
---|---|---|
SQL-92 | Sensitive | Single Only |
Postgres | Sensitive | Single Only |
MySQL | InSensitive | Single/Double |
SQLite | Sensitive | Single/Double |
Oracle | Sensitive | Single Only |
如在 condition 中判断两个字符串忽略大小写后是否相等:1
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5/* SQL-92 */
WHERE UPPER(name) = UPPER('KaNyE')
/* MySQL */
WHERE name = "KaNyE"
字符串匹配(String Matching)
1 | SELECT * FROM enrolled AS e |
字符串操作(String Operations)
不同 DBMS 有不同的 string 函数(没有完全遵从 SQL-92 标准),如连接两个 strings1
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9/* SQL-92 */
SELECT name FROM student
WHERE login = LOWER(name) || '@cs';
/* MySQL */
SELECT name FROM student
WHERE login = LOWER(name) + '@cs';
SELECT name FROM student
WHERE login = CONCAT(LOWER(name), '@cs')
时间类型操作(Date/Time Operations)
不同的 DBMS 中的定义和用法不一样,具体见各 DBMS 的文档。
窗口/开窗函数(Window Functions)
主要用于在一组记录中,对每一条记录进行一些计算,如:
例 1:1
2SELECT *, ROW_NUMBER() OVER () AS row_num
FROM enrolled;
例 2:1
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4SELECT cid, sid,
ROW_NUMBER() OVER (PARTITION BY cid)
FROM enrolled
ORDER BY cid;
例 3:找到每门课获得最高分的学生1
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6SELECT * FROM (
SELECT *,
RANK() OVER (PARTITION BY cid ORDER BY grade ASC) AS rank
FROM enrolled
) AS ranking
WHERE ranking.rank = 1